Keywords

Variables , Ladakh , Housing , Ethnic Tribes , cold desert

1 . INTRODUCTION

Housing is not only an essential component of quality of life but also an essential human need as it is the house that reflects the values, aspirations, future expectations and social and cultural identity of its residents and also of society as a whole (Hamdi, 1990; Deheragoda, 2004). Housing environment includes housing conditions, household water supply conditions, indoor air pollution and indoor noise pollution (Rahman, 1998). Housing reflects the cultural, social and economic values of the society (Omole, 2010). The major determinants of environmental health conditions are the lack of access to clean water, inadequate sanitation, poor waste disposal, indoor air pollution and overcrowding in housing (Leukman et al., 2014) and one of the essential derivatives of defective or deteriorated housing is poor health  (Smith, 1966). Fuel wood or biomass fuels used for cooking are major sources of indoor air pollutants, which negatively affect the health conditions especially of women (Singh et al., 1996). Traditional residential adjustment in response to harsh climatic conditions leads to various aspects of poor housing that in turn leads to poor health (Rather et al., 2017). There is strong relationship between poor housing and diseases (Park, 2015).

The Environmental Hygiene Committee, Ministry of Health, Government of India has recommended the following standards for housing of rural areas (Gilg, 1985) (Table 1). Some worth contributions on various aspects of housing made by scholars are Kulkarni (1998), Aderamo and Ayobolu (2010), Eja (2011), Angel and Bittschi (2014), Spellerberg et al. (2006), Streimikiene (2014), Wokekoro and Owei (2014), Keall (2010), Bennefoy, (2007), Leukman et al. (2014), Mudey et al. (2011), Park et al. (2002), Singh et al. (1996), Baba (2015) and Rather et al. (2017). The present study was an attempt to analyze the housing characteristics of ethnic populations in different blocks and come up with various levels of quality of housing. The study will help to improve the quality of housing in the area that will result in the improvement of health and overall quality of life in this tribal area.

2 . STUDY AREA

The study area is located at an altitude of 2900 to 5900m and lies between 32º to 36ºN latitude and 72º to 80ºE longitude (Figure 1). This is the largest district of Ladakh Union Territory and covers an area of 45100 km². The area is mountainous throughout within three parallel ranges, the Zanskar, Ladakh, and Karakoram (Husain, 1984). Shayok, Indus, and Zanskar are the three main rivers. Majority of the population lives in river valleys. The main climatic features of the area are wide diurnal and seasonal fluctuation in temperature with -40°C in winter and 35°C in summer seasons (Sagwal, 1991). The annual range of temperature is about 25°C (Husain, 1984).

Figure 1. Study area: Leh district (India)

The study area has a total population of 133487 persons, out of these 87816 persons (65.78%) live in rural areas while as 45671 persons (34.22%) inhabit the urban areas of the district. The majority of the population 95763 (71.74%) is tribal (Census, 2011) and major ethnic tribes are, Bhots, Brokpas, Champas, Mons and Arghuns. They are the descendants of a blended race of Mons of North India, Dards of Baltistan and Mongols of Central Asia (Dewan, 2004).

3 . DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY

Toposheets (Survey of India: 1961) on 1:50,000 scales were used to delineate the study area and to demarcate different blocks. Block was the unit of study in the present research. The present work was based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected through household survey in order to collect the data regarding quality of heath of native ethnic tribes of cold desert Leh-Ladakh. A sample size of around 10% of sample villages (18) and 4 to 10% of sample households (412) were selected for the present study (Table 2). Field survey of 412 sample households in stratified sample of 18 villages and 2 urban wards and Choglamsar notified area was carried out with a structured questionnaire. Interview technique was used for data collection and the questionnaire/schedule was the tool. Head of the village were interviewed for information regarding housing conditions. Secondary data regarding demographic aspects was obtained from Department of Census and Directorate of Economics and Statistics. Secondary data regarding other aspects of quality of housing was also obtained from different departments.

For determining the quality of housing, 18 variables (Table 3) were selected. Composite score method was used for the measurement of quality of housing. Ranks were assigned according to the order of magnitude of the variables, that is 1 for very high, 2 for high, 3 for medium, 4 for low and 5 for very low (Table 4). In order to remove the biases of scale and with no weightage problem, percentage of variables were assigned ranks. Removal of tie, if any was carried out by taking the average of the ranks of the same values of different blocks. The final score of each variable was obtained by adding the different ranks and finally comparative analysis was done to show the quality of housing in different blocks (Jha and Tripathi, 2014).

4 . RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Housing Characteristics

4.1.1 Household Density and Households /House

There is uneven distribution of households in Leh-Ladakh. Average density of households is 93.  Density of households ranges from 36 in Durbuk to 366 in Khaltsi. The number of households in a house indicates the internal living density as well as the condition of the housing facility. Out of 412 households surveyed 398 households were having only one household/ house while 10 households were living as 2 households/ house and even 4 households were living as more than 2 households /house (Table 4).

4.1.2 Type of Houses

Type of house in terms of construction is an important indicator of quality of housing and indicates affordable capacity of a household.  So far as the type of houses in Leh-Ladakh is concerned there is wide variation at block level. The majority of households surveyed (161) comprising of 39.10% of total households surveyed were living in Pakka houses. Near about 138 households comprising around 33.50% were having concrete housing. However, 113 households (27.40%) were still living in Kacha houses. These sampled villages of some blocks are at far off distance where material for construction of pakka or concrete houses is very difficult to reach.

4.1.3 Room Occupancy Ratio

This indicator of room occupancy gives a better idea of the internal living density within the area.  Analysis of the data reveals that near about 30.13% of households surveyed were having the room occupancy of one person per room and 55.77% households were having two persons per room. However, 14.10% households were having more than 2 persons per room.  

4.1.4 Size of Room

The size of room in a house indicates the internal living condition of the house. The majority of household (76.90 %) were having size of room as per standards (100 feet²). However, some households (23.10%) was having size of room less than the 100 ft².

4.1.5 Age of Houses

This indicator gives a better idea of the physical structure of the houses. The age of houses varies from Leh town to the outskirts. It is relatively more in the town than in the outside of the Leh town.  Large number of houses (40.00%) was less than 15 years in age while as 55.20% of houses were varying in age from 16- 35 years. About 4.80% houses are more than 35 years of age (Table 4).

4.1.6 Ventilation of Houses

The majority of sampled households (85.44%) are lacking behind in terms of ventilation because of lack of knowledge of maintaining good health, poor housing and prolonged severe winter conditions.

4.1.7 Cowshed Location

The majority of the households have cowshed inside the house due to cold winter conditions for about six months. The cowshed location within house is observed in 49.27% (Table 4).

4.1.8 Latrine Location

The majority of the households (71.41%) have flush type of latrine. However, 38.59% household showed dry pit type latrine because of poverty and even about 63.35% of households were having pit latrine inside the house especially in rural areas while as 45.87% of households were having pit latrine outside the house (Table 4).

4.1.9 Housing Perception and Neighborhood Relations

It includes the overall satisfaction of the respondents related to their houses and neighborhood. The housing satisfaction decreases as we move towards the town. The people are living in miserable conditions in far-flung areas. Majority of households (96.36%) were not satisfied with their housing but very less percent of households were having bad neighborhoods (3.63%).

4.2 Quality of Housing

On the basis of composite score, the sample blocks and sample villages were categorized into different levels of quality of housing in Leh- Ladakh (Table 5; Figure 2).

Figure 2. Quality of housing

4.2.1 Very High

Sampled blocks with lowest composite score of less than 60 are categorized under the category of very high quality of housing. Very high quality of education has been noted in the sampled village Saboo of Block Leh, and in urban wards 9 and 21 and in Choglamsar urban area due to good development especially in education sector.

4.2.2 High

All the blocks with composite score of 60-62 are categorized under high quality of housing. This level of housing has been noted in the sample village Nimmo of block Nimmo, Hundar and Skanpok of block Disket, Alchi of block Saspool, Sumoor of block Panamic and Shey of block Thiksey.

4.2.3 Medium

This category of quality of housing has the composite score of 62-64 and comprises of sample village Kuyol of block Nyoma, Tagste of block Durbuk, Taksi of block Turtuk, Taksi of block Turtuk, Shang and Gia of block Kharu and village Khaltsi of block Khaltsi.

4.2.4  Low

Under this category of quality of housing all the blocks having composite score of 64-66 have been grouped. This category of quality of Housing has been reported in the sample village Keray of block Chumathang, h chachut Gogma of block Chachut, h Lingshet of block Lingshet and h Karzok of block Rupsho due to lacking of development.

4.2.5 Very Low

The sample blocks having a composite score of greater than 66 have been categorized under very low quality of housing. This category of quality of housing comprises of sample village Dah of block Skurbuchan due to lacking of housing facilities.

5 . CONCLUSION

The study leads to the conclusion that majority of households were having only one household. Majority of households in urban areas of Leh-Ladakh were living in Pakka house, however people in rural areas were still living in Kacha houses. The number of persons per room is more than recommended standard in majority of households and varies from block to block. Majority of household were having size of room not as per standard. Majority of the households have cowshed inside the house. The majority of the households were having flush type of latrine, however 39% households were having dry pit type latrine and 63% households were having pit latrine inside house especially in rural areas. Majority of households were not satisfied with their housing and very less number of households were having bad relations with their neighbors. Very high quality of housing has been noted in the block Leh, and in urban wards 9 and 21 and in Chuglamsar urban area. High quality of Housing has been noted in the blocks of Nimmo, Disket, Saspool, Panamic and Thiksey. Medium quality of housing has been reported in the blocks of Nyoma, Durbuk, Turtuk, Kharu and Khaltsi. Low quality of housing has been reported in the blocks of Chumathang, Chachut, Lingshet and Rupsho, while as very low quality of housing has been noted in the block Skurbuchan.

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Conflict of Interest

Acknowledgements

References